篇一：批判性推理入门Critical Reasoning for beginners全笔记
Critical Reasoning for beginners
by Marianne Talbot Oxford
Lesson 1 How to recognize arguments and What is the nature of arguments
true, and the other(s) (the premises) are being offered as reasons for believing the truth of the one.
An argument isn't a set of contradictions.
Part of the point of an argument is to move us on from where we are to somewhere a bit further.
Arguments lead to deeper thoughts. (from where we are to where we want)
An Argument:
(one or more) Premises
Conclusion (Function)
[to prove---reasons] [suppose true]
e.g. It's Friday.
Marianne always wears jeans on Friday.
Therefore Marianne will wear jeans today.
Play attention to suppressed premises（隐藏前提）.
context——all sentences may be argument.
implication（实质蕴涵）
entailment（逻辑蕴涵）
Distinguish arguments from
(a) sets of sentences not related as arguments
(1) aren't related at all
e.g. The sea is salt.
Sydney is in Australia.
(2) related but not an argument
e.g. Towards lunchtime clouds formed and the sky blackened. Then the storm broke. (b) sentences (assertions) 'if...then...'
e.g. If it is snowing, the mail will be late.
(implication not entailment)
An argument is a set of sentences, one of which is being asserted.
An assertion is a single sentence (possibly complex) ,that is being expressed in assertive mode.
'because' may be causal or rational.
reason and cause
causal relations（因果关系） and rational relations（推理关系）
A and B entail C doesn't mean A and B cause C.
e.g. It's Friday. (A)
Marianne always wears jeans on Friday. (B)
Therefore Marianne will wear jeans today. (C)
explanation:
(1) causal explanation（因果性解释）:
e.g. Pawl fell down because he wanted to amuse children.
(2) rational explanation（推理性解释）:
e.g. Pawl fell down because Jelly pushed him.
Facts are what makes sentences true or false. They are not Only beliefs or sentences that express beliefs
Belief (e.g. concept)..............the concept 'chair'
Language..................................the language 'c-h-a-i-r'
Reality.......................................the object 'chair'
Arguments can only be good or bad ,they can only be valid or invalid ,they can't be true or false because the only thing that can be true or false is beliefs or the sentences that express beliefs.
A good argument is one in which:
(1)the conclusion must follow the premises
(2)the premises must all be true.
The conclusion must be true. (truth preserving)
逻辑学并不关心前提正确与否，而只关心前提与结论的关系。
Lesson 2 Different sorts of arguments
two basic types of arguments: deduction and induction
Deductive argument :
the truth of their premises guarantees the truth of their conclusion.
e.g. It's Friday.
Marianne always wears jeans on Friday.
Therefore Marianne will wear jeans today.
If the premises are true, the conclusion would be true.
'truth guaranteeing' 'truth preserving'
Deduction is an 'either or' thing:
a good deductive argument gives us conditional certainty.
a bad one tells us nothing.
Inductive arguments are such that the truth of their premises makes the conclusion more or less probable. (don't guarantee)
Inductive arguments can be either weak or strong.
[strong]:The sun has risen every day in the history of the universe. Therefore the sun will rise tomorrow.
[weak]:Every time I met Mary, she wore a necklace.
Therefore the next time I meet her, she will wear a necklace.
逻辑学是中立性的，逻辑的形式可以适用于任何的内容。
Logicians study deduction by studying valid arguments forms
Arguments that are valid is in virtue of their forms as opposed to their contents.
the forms of deduction:
1、Modus Ponens肯定前件取拒式
If P then Q, P, therefore Q. (P,Q sentences)
wrong: If P then Q, Q, therefore P.
(Affirming consequent肯定后件式)
2、Modus tollens否定后件式
If P then Q, not-Q, therefore not-P.
3、Disjunctive syllogism选言三段论
P or Q, not-P, therefore Q.
（P或Q成立，P不成立，因此Q成立）
4、Leibniz's Law 莱布尼兹律（相同者不可辨识）
a is F, a=b, therefore b is F.
e.g. Jane is(predication) tall.
Jane is(identity) the bank manager.
Therefore the bank manager is(predication) tall.
Note:
'is' can serve as a predication（论断） or identity（同等）.
The 'is's above serve as predications.
And the '=' above serves as identity.
5、Syllogism三段论
all Fs are G.
a is an F.
Therefore a is a G.
6、Deontic Logic道义逻辑
e.g. Lying is wrong.
Therefore we shouldn't lie.
7、Modal Logic模态逻辑
（a logic about necessity and possibility)
e.g. It is necessarily the case that there are no square circles.
Therefore it is not possible that there are square circles.
8、Temporal Logic时序逻辑（时态逻辑）
e.g. It is raining today.
Therefore tomorrow it will have been raining yesterday.
Inductive arguments
All inductive arguments rely on the assumption of the uniformity of nature (the idea that the future will be like the past)
哲学中的一个基本问题是，我们对未来的假设，会不会和过去的经验相一致？ Uniformity 一致性 ，uniformity of nature (David Hume)自然界是否具有一致性？
Within the category of inductive arguments there are many different sub-types:
1、arguments from analogy类比推理
a is like b, a is F, therefore b is F.
（小写字母：particular thing特定的事物
大写字母：性质或句子）
2、arguments from authority诉诸权威的论证
e.g. Einstein is a brilliant physicist.
Einstein says relativism is true.
Therefore relativism is true.
Causal arguments因果论证
Causal arguments can be deductive or inductive, depending on whether we are arguing from a causal claim or to a causal claim.
deductive: As cause Bs.
There was an A.
Therefore there will have been a B.
inductive: Every observed A has been followed by a B.
Therefore As cause Bs.
negative existential否定存在判断句
e.g. 飞马不存在。
We can know that
arguments that are deductively valid
——in virtue of their forms
——in virtue of their content
e.g. Deontic Logic ,Temporal Logic
arguments that are inductively valid
——the uniformity of nature
Lesson 3 'logic-book-style'逻辑书
the point:
(a)it enables us to add suppressed premises隐含前提
(b)it enables us to eliminate cross references, irrelevancies and inconsistent terms排除交叉引用、无关和不一致词语
(c)it makes it easier to evaluate arguments.
A set of steps for analyzing arguments: 1. identify the conclusion of the argument
Look for the argument indicators (so, therefore, then, if...then..., accordingly, hence, since, for, because, from which we see that, it follows that, which establishes that...)
2. identify each of the premises
3. add suppressed premises
4. remove irrelevancies
5. remove inconsistent terms
6. remove cross-references
Example 1: Socialism did not provide the incentives need for a prosperous economy. Therefore socialism was doomed to failure.
Premise 1: Incentives are needed for a prosperous economy.
Premise 2: Socialism did not provide incentives.
Conclusion: Socialism was doomed to failure.
Premises and conclusion must be sentences.
P, unless Q.
If Q, then R.
P
But not R.
Example 2: Since many newly emerging nations do not have the capital resources necessary for sustained growth, they will continue to need help from industrial nations.
Premise 1: Many newly emerging nations do not have capital resources
Premise 2: Capital resources are necessary for sustained growth.
Premise 3: If a newly emerging nation is to sustain its growth, and it does not have capital resources, it will need help from industrial nations.
Conclusion: Many newly emerging nations will need help from industrial nations. Example 3: Well perhaps she didn't want you to tickle her tummy, or she didn't realize that was what you were going to do. If she didn't realize , then you obviously went about it in the wrong way. In that case you deserved to get scratched unless you ready thought she was such a perceptive cat that she'd understand 'woof-woof' meant 'roll over '. If you thought that you're an idiot. But you're not an idiot you're just twisted. So if the poor thing did want you to tickle her tummy you deserve to get scratched.
篇二：[牛津开放课程：教你如何和人讲道理关键性推理入门
[牛津开放课程：教你如何和人讲道理/关键性推理入门][Critical Reasoning for Beginners][6集全][简繁英][HALFCD-TLF] 牛津开放课程
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课程介绍：
你能清晰地陈述你的理由么？你能以自己的观点来说服他人么？你能给予自己一个充分的理由来说服自己所要相信的么？当你在报纸上、电视上或者在酒吧里听到一个论点，你是不是很希望自己能信心十足地评价呢？
在这六个课时的课程中，你将要学习关于论点的知识，如何去确认，如何去评价，如何纠正一个错误的论点。如果你能关注自己信仰的真理，中肯的表达自己的观点，那这些技巧将是无价的。
如何学习批判性思考
思考能力是一种技术﹐凡是学习一门技术一定要经过反覆的练习。切记!
要将批判性思
考学得好一定要不厌其烦的练习、练习、再练习。那么﹐要怎么练习呢? 以下分为几个阶段：
1. 从日常推理到论证架构
首先学会将所有日常生活中的推理当作一个有前提有结论的论证﹐例如：
昨天小王去吃山鹿肉被她的女朋友春丽骂到臭头﹐春丽说﹐我们必须保护野生动物不能吃它们﹐否则它们会灭种﹐那么﹐以后我们的子孙们就看不到野生动物了。
当我们看到这一小段具有推理的叙述时﹐我们可以用论证的架构来看它﹐找出此论证的前提与结论。这个论证的结论可能是(A)吃野生动物是不应该的。或是( B )吃山鹿肉是不应该的。或是©小王不应该吃山鹿肉。当我们以不同的结论来分析一个论证时﹐所需的前提也不尽相同。以(A)结论来说﹐前提是：
(1) 人们如果去吃野生动物会导致野生动物灭绝。
(2) 如果野生动物灭绝则后代子孙看不到野生动物。
(3) 促使后代子孙看不到野生动物是不应该的。
(4) 所以﹐吃野生动物是不应该的。
如果以( B )结论来说﹐前提必须增加一个：「山鹿是野生动物」。而结论©则大概要增加另一个前提是：「小王是人。」则能顺利推理出这些结论。
当我们使用论证方式来看一个日常生活的推理时﹐我们可以很清楚看到其思路过程﹐这也有利於我们去分析它。
那么﹐当我们在日常生活中听到或看到一个推理时﹐我们就练习将它转换成论证形式﹐寻找它的前提与结论﹐然后可以更进一步的去分析它。但是﹐有时我们很难在一个日常生活的推理中找到结论是什么﹐或甚至找到好几个没什么关连的结论。有许多人的思考非常混乱﹐很难将其推理清楚的整理出来﹐这时﹐我们需要一些技巧﹐例如﹐通常结论出现在某些特别的词汇后面﹐像是﹐「因此」、「所以」、「那么」等等﹐或者出现在另外一些词之前﹐像是﹐「…﹐因为」或是「…,否则」等等。这些词汇都属於推理性用语﹐我们可以从这些关键词中寻找结论以及前提。
如果在一个对话中﹐你无法清楚用论证形式掌握某人的推理﹐那么﹐你可以自己设好一个框框让他填空﹐你可以问﹐「你的结论是什么?」或者更口语一点﹐「你到底想说什么?」等等﹐先让他自己讲出结论﹐然后再问﹐「好﹐那你的理由是什么?」或者﹐「为何你这么认为?」这么一来﹐说者自己可以帮你整理好他的推理。
2. 分析论证
学习批判性思考的另一个步骤是分析论证。以上面的例子来说﹐我们必须有能力判断
该论证是否为有效论证﹐另外﹐我们还可以分析上述的前提是否都有说服力。例如﹐促使后代子孙看不到野生动物是不应该的。这样的叙述是正确的吗? 在日常生活中﹐我们可以用这个叙述当作春丽的「预设」并要求她提出说明来支持这个预设﹐那么﹐我们就又可以构作一个论证来分析春丽的预设。
3. 谬误训练
以上是批判性思考的基本能力训练﹐除此之外﹐批判性思考的训练还包括有熟悉人们推理过程中经常会犯的错误﹐我们用一个术语「谬误」来称呼它﹐谬误的种类很多﹐我们将不同的名称赋予不同的谬误﹐例如﹐「稻草人式的谬误」、「歧义的谬误」、「循环支持的谬误」等等。藉由这些不同的名称以及不同谬误的错误推理结构的熟悉﹐我们可以藉由在推理中寻找各式各样的谬误的练习产生一种迅速发现谬误的直觉﹐当听到自己或别人说出这类谬误的推理时﹐直觉马上会产生一个「不太对劲」的感觉出现﹐协助自己判断推理的有效性。
过去在大学时期﹐由於新闻媒体几乎完全由当时一党独大的政府所掌控﹐新闻主播的工作彷彿就是在做洗脑教育﹐教导人民那些从事反对运动或反对党的人士完全是在做破坏社会与经济的罪人﹐由於立场明确﹐就算是黑的也要想办法说成是白的﹐例如某天可能有一则新闻：「只有大约不到五、六万人的抗议群眾稀稀疏疏的在台北街头阻碍交通﹐造成交通瘫痪﹐引起民眾的厌恶感。」而隔天可能有另一则新闻：「大约至少有上千名爱国人士﹐广大的发起反对破坏社会秩序的宣言﹐强而有力的斥责昨天的少数抗议群眾。」当时的新闻报导里面充满了各式各样的谬误﹐身为大学生的我们为了不辜负学习的好环境﹐我们藉此训练自己的批判性思考能力﹐一群人坐在电视机前面听完一则报导后迅速找出其中所有谬误﹐某A说﹐「有三个谬误。」某B说﹐「不﹐有六个。」某C则说﹐「我听到八个。」然后﹐大家再一个一个提出来讨论﹐大家玩得不亦乐乎！这真是时代造英雄啊!
4. 构作论证
上面的训练是一种找错误的训练﹐然而﹐批判性思考不应只停留在找错的阶段﹐而需要能够去构作一个论证。构作论证的基本方法是先假设结论之后﹐然后去找前提。简单的说﹐事先假设某个主张是对的﹐然后找理由去支持这个结论﹐当构作出一个论证之后﹐自己再做自我批判找出错误或没有说服力的地方去改进。如果可以改进完成则构作出一个好的论证﹐如果无法做到﹐那么﹐可能仍须努力寻找好的支持理由﹐或者﹐可以考虑放弃原本假设的结论。
构做论证有时需要一些「创造性思考」的能力﹐这个能力和一般的批判性思考的训练方法和思考过程都不同﹐我将另文再谈如何训练「创造性思考」的能力。
篇三：2013年总结之学习篇——国内外高等学校网络公开课
2013年总结之学习篇——国内外高等学校
网络公开课
（1）国外高校
<1>加州大学电视台——《Science of Healthy Living》
01 Stress is the Norm It's How you Cope with it that Matters
02 Staying Balanced and Fit at any age
03 Using the Mind Body Continuum to Treat Pain
04 Emotional Vibrancy and Well-being Even In Modern Day Culture 05 Mind-Body Interventions Is there Power in Positive Thinking
<2>巴黎高等商学院——《对话领袖》
01 领导力
02 奢侈品圆桌会议
03 奢侈品在生活中的意义
<3>宾夕法尼亚大学——《沃顿的学问》
01 次贷危机概观
02 沃顿商学院的房利美和房地美救助计划
03 沃顿商学院讨论金融危机影响
04 沃顿商学院预见更多的问题
05 花旗集团CEO Vikram Pandit看到一个艰难的恢复期
06 崩溃后面的高风险贷款
07 走下坡路，是美国汽车制造商暗战？
08 “全球化下”为什么公司都与来自世界各地每个人的一切？
09 失去一点反而有助公司和团队胜利
10 数据饮食的时间？决定保持哪些客户信息或者丢弃
11 印度在医疗保健条款上是一个新兴的国家
12 一个新时代的新规则，FCC的挑战
13 与Neel Kashkari一对一
14 好的作品，格拉米和小额信贷
15 利润，全球化和领导者
16 保险，合作伙伴和外部投资
17 酸奶，可伸缩性和社会事业
18 早期的成功，今天的贫困与教育
19 假设，变化和成功
20 Neel Kaskari对金融危机的看法：“我们的民族将更加强大”
<4>斯坦福大学——《百度CEO李彦宏演讲》
01 创新时代的中国机会
02 市场动荡时要精于专注
03 点亮暗网
04 框计算的未来
05 中国对计算机科学人才的需求
06 对百度影响深远的早期重大决策
07 为什么北美搜索引擎公司在中国举步维艰
08 中国硅谷的发展
<5>斯坦福大学——《七个颠覆你思想的演讲》
01 脑-机接口
02 为脑构建原理图
03 耳聋：一个新兴的治疗策略
04 让盲人重获光明
05 可视化的欲望
06 新的精神疾病工程疗法
07 在芯片上搜索大脑
<6>哈佛大学——《幸福课》
01 什么是积极心理学？
02 为什么要学习积极心理学？
03 幸福是一种随机现象吗？
04 积极的环境能改变人
05 环境的力量
06 乐观主义
07 逆境还是机遇？
08 感激
<7>哈佛大学——《公平该如何是好？》
01 The moral side of murder
02 The case for Cannibalism
03 Putting a price tag on life
04 How to measure pleasure
05 Free to choose
06 Who owns me?
07 This land is my land
08 Consenting adults 09 Hired guns?
10 foster mother
11 Mind your motive
12 The supreme principle of morality
13 A lesson in lying
14 A deal is a deal
15 What’s a fair start?
16 What do we deserve?
17 Arguing affirmative action
18 What’s the purpose?
19 The good citizen
20 Freedom VS Fit
21 The claims of community
22 Where our loyalty
23 Debating Same-Sex marriage
24 The good life
<8>牛津大学——《尼采的心灵与自然》
01 The Genealogy of Guilt
02 Nietzsche on Soul in Nature：An Ecological Perspective
03 Who is the Sovereign Individual Nietzsche on Freedom
04 Consciousness,Language and Nature Nietzsches Philosophy of Mind and Nature 05 Nietzsches Metaphysics
06 Nietzsches Value Monism Saying Yes to Everything
07 Nietzsches Source Scholarly Nietzsche editions on the web
<9>牛津大学——《批判性推理入门》
01 The Nature of Arguments
02 Different Types of Arguments
03 Setting out Arguments Logic Book Style
04 What is a Good Argument Validity and Truth
05 Evaluating Arguments Part.One
06 Evaluating Arguments Part.Two
<10>耶鲁大学——《哲学·死亡》
01.Course introduction
02.The nature of persons dualism VS physicalism
03.Arguments for the existence of the soul Part I
04.Introduction to Plato's Phaedo Arguments for the existence of the soul Part II 05.Arguments for the existence of the soul Part III Free will and near-death experiences
06.Arguments for the existence of the soul Part IV Plato Part I
07.Plato Part II Arguments for the immortality of the soul
08.Plato Part III Arguments for the immortality of the soul
09.Plato Part IV Arguments for the immortality of the soul
10.Personal identity Part II dentity across space and time and the soul theory
11.Personal identity Part II The body theory and the personality theory
12.Personal identity Part III Objections to the personality theory
13.Personal identity Part IV What matters
14.What matters (cont.) The nature of death Part I
15.The nature of death (cont.) Believing you will die
16.Dying alone The badness of death Part I
17.The badness of death Part II The deprivation account
18.The badness of death Part III Immortality Part I
19.Immortality Part II The value of life Part I
20.The value of life Part II Other bad aspects of death Part I
21.Other bad aspects of death Part II
22.Fear of death
23.How to live given the certainty of death
24.Suicide Part I The rationality of suicide
25.Suicide Part II Deciding under uncertainty
26.Suicide Part III The morality of suicide and course conclusion
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