理论性论文范文

篇一：往年毕业论文范文(理论)

本科生毕业论文（设计） 题目:

姓名:

学院:

专业:

班级:

学号: 指导教师: WTO框架下食品出口食品安全问题研究 陈怀杰 财经学院 国际经济与贸易2010级③班 1448100301 颜海明 职称: 讲师

200 年 月日

安徽科技学院教务处制

摘要???????????????????????????????????1 关键词??????????????????????????????????1 引言??????????????????????????????1

一、食品安全概述?????????????????????????????1

（一）食品的定义????????????????????????????1

1．营养价值????????????????????????????????1

2. 安全卫生???????????????????????????????1

（二）食品安全的内涵???????????????????????????2

（三）食品安全的影响因素?????????????????????????2

二、食品安全制度及规范??????????????????????????1

（一）WTO有关食品安全方面的规则协议???????????????????2

（二）我国主要食品贸易伙伴的食品安全管理体制分??????????????3

（三）对完善我国食品安全管理体制的借鉴??????????????????1

三、食品贸易的发展现状?????????????????????????2

（一）全球食品贸易的发展现状???????????????????????2

（二）我国食品贸易发展现状????????????????????????2

四、食品安全对我国食品贸易的影响分析???????????????????2

(一)技术性贸易壁垒对出口国出口方面的影响分析???????????????3

(二) 动植物卫生检疫措施对出口国贸易影响分析???????????????3

（三）环境规制对出口国贸影响分析?????????????????????1

五、如何应对食品贸易食品安全问题?????????????????????4

（一）我国食品出口企业方面的应对政策???????????????????4

（二）食品行业协会方面对策????????????????????????8

（三）我国政府方面的应对政策???????????????????????8

六、总结?????????????????????????????????16 致谢??????????????????????????????????12 参考文献????????????????????????????????13

WTO框架下食品出口中食品安全问题研究

国际经济与贸易专业学生 陈怀杰

指导教师颜海明

摘要：作为人类得以生存繁衍必不可少的要素，食品，从地球上有人类诞生时起就在人们的生活中充当着非常重要的角色。随着社会的不断发展与进步，人们生活品质的要求呼声是越来越高。不必说，好的生活品质自然就离不开来自食品方面的因素影响。所以，生活当中的食品安全问题越来越引起人们的警觉。同时，在世界贸易逐步发展中食品贸易所占的比重份额越来越大。在WTO框架下的食品贸易方面，我国在食品贸易方面与世界上其他食品主要贸易国的联系越来越紧密。技术性贸易壁垒因素、动植物卫生检疫措施因素、环境规制因素、及食品进口国设置的种种食品安全方面的壁垒，对我国食品贸易的可持续发展而言，都是不能忽视的。因此，本文所要研究的主题为面对暴露越来越多的食品安全方面的问题，我们该如何予以应对。

关键词：WTO框架；食品出口；食品安全

引言：作为当今全球关注的焦点问题之一，食品安全问题一直是备受关注。另外，在经济全球化、自由化的大背景之下，作为世界上最主要的食品出口国之一，环境规制因素、动植物卫生检疫措施因素、技术性贸易壁垒因素等等，都是限制我国进行食品出口贸易元凶。同时，在国际市场上还有一些重要因素，主要体现在：一食品进口国的贸易保护；我国是食品生产和销售大国，在国际食品贸易市场中占据第三位，进口国以保护国内食品生产企业及相关行业的健康发展，通常以各种方式进行贸易保护。这也体现出了我国作为发展中国家，在国际贸易中的弱势地位。二国际市场对食品安全的高度重视；在经济全球化快速发展的同时社会也得到快速地进步，全球人民的生活水平也得到了显著提高。人们不仅要求是可以解决饥饿，还要要求视觉欣赏、入口美味、营养丰富，以及食品的安全性等，更加注重饮食健康。因此，接连发生的食品安全问题日益引起人们对食品安全的警觉。由此，基于我国食品出口中频频出现的安全因素进行分析和探究，提出应对的策略，对我国食品出口贸易的健康可持续发展具有重要意义。

一、食品安全概述

（一）食品的定义

食品是人类之生存根本，是保证生产和生活的必不可缺的基本要素。从“民以食为天”就可看出食品对人类来说的重要性。我国在1995年6月颁布的《中华人民共和国食品卫生法》是这样为食品定义的：食品是用于人们食用或饮用的相关的成品及原料，但是不以治疗为目的的物品。2009年6月，颁布实施《中华人民共和国食品安全法》，但对于之前食品的定义保持不变。概括性地讲，通常食品应该具有以下两个主要特征：

1、营养价值

有关食品的营养表述主要表现为营养素的种类是否齐全、其数量及相互比例是否适宜人体，能否容易地被人体所吸收和利用从而转化为人类所需体能。可消化率、其营养成分以及发热量决定了食品是否具有营养价值。如今，人们对食品的由对量的要求转化到对质的要求。特别是婴幼儿，父母们都是想要把最好的给自己的孩子，对食品的营养价值是非常重视的。

2、安全卫生

食品一般都具有保质期，食用超过保质期的食品将会对人体的健康造成危害。总结起来，食品安全卫生方面的影响因素分为以下几点：一是动物及植物本身的身体上存在的毒素，食用后很容易导致中毒；二是食品在长时间不合理的储藏环境中所产生的毒素；三是由于后天的人为因素造成的食品污染，“牛肉膏”事件中，就是因为使用了大量的

食品添加剂，而一味追求食品的色泽和口感，却给人类的身体健康带来了伤害。

（二）食品安全的内涵

食品安全，在我国，《中华人民共和国食品卫生法》将食品安全概括的定义为：食品应无毒、无害，同时应防止食品污染和有害因素对人体造成危害。我国《食品安全法》在第九十九条中对于食品安全的定义进行了进一步的发展，定义食品安全为：无毒、无害，且符合应当有的营养要求。从以上可以看出，食品安全并不是一个一成不变的概念。随着时代的发展和自然界物质的变化，及人们对食品不同种类的需求的变化而逐渐地发展的。随着现代人们生活节奏的变迁，供人们所需求的食品结构一直在慢慢地变化着，但新技术是一把双刃剑，生态环境的恶化，又导致了新的食品安全问题。同时，食品安全又是有一定的标准的，这样一来，食品安全会随着时代的发展及社会的进步而具有更加广义的内涵。本文，将食品安全划分为数量安全类别，质量安全类别，和可持续安全类别三方面。数量安全是指一个国家或地区可以生产满足该国或地区的人们生存所需的食品数量，这是一国供给能力的体现。质量安全是指生产及销售的食品能够达到一定的质量安全标准，包括营养、卫生、安全等。可持续安全是指在既能保证当代人食品数量和质量方面要求的同时，也要保护好生态环境、合理地利用自然资源，以保证满足子孙后代的生存和健康生活的要求。

（三）食品安全的影响因素

1、食品安全信息存在不对称

食品贸易，尤其是国际市场中的食品贸易，食品安全的信息不对称是一种非常严重的现象。一方面由于国际市场食品的生产和消费者之间存在着地域差距，另一方面是由于食品这种特殊的商品本身的信息就存在不对称性。消费者只有在购买时，才能通过阅读食品包装的标签信息来获知食品有哪些营养成分及保质期等相关信息。但是，标注的内容是否真实，食品是否是安全的，对于消费者来说还都是个未知数，以至于在食用过后也不曾得知。而食品生产商对于自己所生产的食品的安全性却是了如指掌，以至有些不负责任的生产者为了获得高额的经济利润而生产劣质食品，这也正是近些年来食品安全问题频频发生的原因之一。

2、食品安全标准存在缺陷

由于受到经济发展水平和相关技术水平较落后的影响，我国食品安全标准在更新速度上也跟不上国际水平的变化。

存在重要标准不清晰的情况；如饮料、乳制品等一些重要食品行业还没能制定良好的操作规范，甚至就连在经常被食品进口国扣留的一些食品进行原因分析时，首要原因也是由于农、兽药残留超标。而对于我国农兽药的具体标准，只存在行业协会规定的标准，而我国的相关法律并未做详尽的规定。

部分标准的实施效果不好；2008 年 9 月，三鹿奶粉事件开始浮出水面。引起社会上的广泛关注和政府方面的高度重视，启动了国家重大食品安全事故的 I 级响应。出于对国产奶粉安全性考虑，消费者宁愿购买价格昂贵的洋奶粉。可是近年来国外奶粉的安全质量也并不那么让人放心，如美国雀巢奶粉含碘超标，美赞臣奶粉金属污染及雅培召回事件等等。由此看出洋奶粉也并非都是健康安全的，针对于此，我国的相关部门也应当予以重视，加强监管，完善标准。

3、与食品安全相关检验检疫技术水平落后

以前，我们主要将大量的时间、资金和精力投入到如何改进食品加工生产设备，及增产和销量等方面，而对于食品从出厂到出口到国外的中间检验检疫环节不够重视。即便是企业在出口前有进行了相关检验检疫，也很少能够符合国际化水平要求，更不用说达到有些高于国际平均水平的发达国家的标准，同时我国在检验检疫技术等方面也是与 HACCP及 CAC 存在非常大的差距。因此，我国食品在遭到进口国扣留甚至退还的原因之

一就是出口前没有进行相关国际标准的检验检疫。

4、企业缺乏社会责任的意识

实际上，缺乏社会责任意识是很多企业出现食品安全问题的重要原因之一。某些企业一味追求高额利润，以次充好。2010 年 4 月，在扬州质监局打假中发现，某色拉油+芝麻香精油=麻油，假标签+劣质葡萄酒=长城干红，‘天之蓝’酒瓶内灌的是‘洋河大曲’。2011年在由食品商务网发起的‘2011 年食品十大事件评选’活动结果显示：目前我国每年返餐地沟油竟有 200-300 万吨之多。可是有些企业为了更多利益，他们却知而不改，对顾客的身体健康毫无顾及。企业社会责任意识的缺乏导致了食品安全事件。

5、相关食品安全方面法律法规不健全

我国现颁布的食品安全方面的法律法规主要有：《中华人民共和国食品安全法》、《中华人民共和国进出口商品检验法》、《中华人民共和国标准化法》等等。相关法律和食品有关部门管理条例在上个世纪都曾在起到过一些显著的作用。但是，近些年来屡屡发生的食品安全问题事件，反映出了我国在食品安全法律法规方面还存在着很大的漏洞。为什么会在食品安全事件发生后来进行解决时往往会处于被动不利局面。究其原因，主要是由于我国还没有形成食品从生产直到销售的完整法律法规体系，同时各个法律法规之间还存在交叉重叠甚至是矛盾的问题。

二、 食品安全制度及规范

（一）WTO 有关食品安全方面的规则协议

现今世界范围内的许多国家都会以国民身体健康和动植物安全以及保护生态环境等为借口进行贸易保护，都会对进口来的食品进行非常严格的质量和高技术含量要求，同时为保证食品的安全性，在进口食品时进行超常严格的检验和检疫。通常发达国家所担心的是发展中国家出口的一些食品受廉价劳动力影响导致出口食品的价格相对偏低。这种情况下严格的限制要求就很容易产生贸易摩擦和贸易争端。因此，作为负责监督和管理世界经济贸易秩序的世界贸易组织（WTO），及时制定实施了涉及食品安全和食品贸易相关的一系列措施和协议。本文主要介绍的是和食品贸易有着密切关系的两个协议；《技术性贸易壁垒协议》、《实施动植物卫生检疫措施协议》，即TBT 协议和SPS 协议。

1、 TBT 协议

技术性贸易壁垒是一种主要的非关税壁垒，与关税壁垒相比无论其隐蔽性还是限制进口的效果都远比后者强大，是出口国企业遭遇最多及损失最大的一项非关税壁垒。在经济全球化背景下，传统关税壁垒所发挥的作用越来越小。各国家为了维护本国的经济利益，更倾向于采用隐蔽性相对更强的技术性贸易壁垒措施。也正是由此阻碍了自由贸易的正常健康发展，1995 年，《关税及贸易总协定》制定了《TBT 协议》，此后在 WTO 中该协议得到继续应用和发展。对于因TBT 而引起的贸易争端得以有效的调节。在 TBT 协议中，为了使进口的商品不影响人类和动植物健康及生态环境等，规定可以适当采取一定技术标准；同时，又严格规定不可以用技术性措施来进行贸易保护主义，禁止阻碍自由贸易的发展。食品贸易容易受到 TBT 影响原因是由于发达国家对于来自发展中国家的食品进行一系列高标准、高技术含量的要求，因而有效地保护了本国的食品行业。

2、 SPS 协议

动植物卫生检疫措施（SPS），制定之初是为保护人类的健康及控制动植物病虫害的一项技术壁垒。卫生与动植物检疫措施实施是全人类在同病虫害的长期较量中总结出来的。SPS 壁垒产生的原因主要有以下几方面：一，它是市场经济发展的必然产物，由国家干预垄断的经济市场逐步发展到自由的市场经济，这期间各国都以正确的态度对待贸易中产生的 SPS壁垒；二，长期以来，在经济和贸易方面都保持着领先地位的发达国家，

篇二：学术理论性文章的写法

学术理论性文章的写法

人文科学和社会科学的研究有三大类：

1. 基础理论研究：这类研究不考虑现实的、直接的具体应用目标，它的有用性就体现在人对人类社会、自然和人自身的认识和把握上，目的是揭示事物的基本原理或规律，获知有关的新知识。

2. 应用研究：将纯理论的东西化解为实践所需的东西。如广播如何正确引导舆论的研究，儒家文化在新农村建设中的作用的研究。

3. 实验开发：利用从研究或实际经验获得的知识，通过对具体对象进行论证或则概括性描述，进而上升到理论。实验开发性文章需要对基础理论研究和应用研究比较了解才能写得好。这类文章最容易出现的问题是仅仅总结了经验，却没有形成理论，只是就经验谈经验或者用政治套话编织文章。主要由于形成的理论没有别的理论支持，只是自己因为需要加强文章理论而生搬硬套上去的；或者是形成的理论是口号形式，是政治宣传形式，或者领导人的讲话。

此外，宣传上使用的“理论”，通常是指党的正常和策略的阐述，是现实意识形态的政治表现。学术上的“理论”是指从某一专业客观研究的视角得出的关于社会、自然、人本身的运作原理。

因此，写出一篇好的理论性文章，需要作者对基础理论、应用理论这两类研究有所了解，还需要对新闻学、传播学、社会学、社会心理学、语言学、符号学、舆论学、文学接受理论、文化学、人类学、跨文化传播、中外历史、中外哲学史、文学史、经济学史等也有所了解，对作者知识的广博性要求比较高，至少也应该知道到哪里去找材料。

掌握基本的论文写作方法

一位有数年广播体育报道经验、在职读研的同志，正在写一篇关于广播体育深度报道的硕士论文。他倒是很努力，事先查看了许多有关深度报道的论文，但是不掌握写论文的要领，也没有阅读一些相关学科的学术著作。上来先说什么是深度报道，花了较多的篇幅；接着引证了不少领导人重视体育的语录；然后描述了常见的广播体育深度报道的几种形式，其中发明了几个只有自己认可的新概念；接着再说体育报道与经济、政治的关系；再下来是深度报道的可读性、怎样编排导语、怎样使用语言等等，洋洋洒洒写了三万字。文章语言流畅，使用的材料非常生动且丰富，大都是自己亲身经历的，但是这篇文章实在不像是学术论文，还是经验总结（总结得也不够好）。

学术性理论文章，即使是“实验开发”类的研究具体问题的学术论文，也必须要提出有关实际工作的新观点或者发现新问题。

? 一定要有新意。如果文章所讲的内容，对于同行来说是常识或者政治套话，就会给

人留下“没理论”的印象。作者需要明确自己所讲的内容有什么新意，如新观点、新发现、新视角、新问题、新的不同意见等等。如果一时想不出什么新意来，宁可暂时停下来，找到合适的切入点再动笔。

? 不能以写教材的方式来写。不需要对读者都已经了解的东西写太多，需要的新观点，

需要给人以启迪，而不是讲解概念。

? 不需要引证领导人的语录。如果是宣传性的文章，引用领导人的语录是可以的，但

是作为专门的而研究性论文，一般没有引证的必要。

? 不要随意生造理论性名词。不是生造几个理论性名词，就可以增加文章的理论色彩。 ? 一篇文章讲一个中心思想。一篇文章只能有一个中心思想，不要枝丫过多。如果讲

太多东西，一篇文章的篇幅也无法深入，不如只写一个中心思想。

? 通过专业和相关学科的基本理论来进行论证。学术性文章的论证，不能陷入的宣传

性“理论”的思路中，不能用套话、宣传口号来进行论证。要依据专业领域或相关学科的基本理论，从不同角度说明某一工作经验的合理性或创造性。

掌握本专业学科和相关学科的基础知识

人们常常会困于自己现在工作的现窄领域而打不开思路，文章也就写不成功。因此需要多接触平常的相关科学的知识，对其基础理论有所了解。而基础理论并不是很玄妙高深的东西，都来自于对生活经验的提升。例如“首因效应”和“近因效应”，就是从生活经验中提升到社会心理学基础理论的，运用这个理论，可以说明很多传播中的现象。

选择每一个与专业相关的学科，各选一本书认真读读，读个十几本，做点笔记（不要求去背，只要遇到问题知道到哪里查找就行了）；平常再多注意专业领域的研究的进展情况（主要通过阅读一些学术期刊），所写的文章就会多少具有学术理论性了。

当知识掌握到一定程度，也会有这种感觉，即遇到一个话题，可以较快地凭借对已学知识的印象，先草草地设计出大体的论证方案，然后较快地找到相关的学术论据，接着在翻阅各种学术材料时不断地调整论证方案，最后写出有一定新意的论文来。

篇三：理论性或论说类论文范文

本论文范文摘自2001年4月第一版高等教育出版社与经济日报出版社出版的《高等学校毕业设计（论文）指导手册》（外语卷）（第137-163页），根据本院论文规范进行了修改，在此对该书主编及论文原作者表示感谢！

理论性或论说类论文范文

Reflection on Chomsky’s Idealization of Language

Author: CHEN Mou-mou

Supervisor: XU Mou-mou, Associate Professor

(College of Foreign Languages, Shandong Agricultural University, tai’an 271018)

Abstract: This paper begins with a brief introduction to Chomsky’s methodology of idealization in linguistic research. Although the idealization in physical research from which Chomsky’s idealization deprives can still keep natural laws’ validity, the author points out Chomsky’s idealization is not accessible. The key point lies in the exclusion of social factors in his research. Then the author demonstrates the reason why Chomsky’s exclusion of social factors is not accessible from two aspects: (1) Language is a concrete system of signs. (2) Language is a social institution. Only in the context of society are these features significant and integrate, can language bear its form and forward its development and keep up the interaction with the society. Therefore instead of “being idealized” out of linguistic research, social factors should be regarded as the base of the research. Otherwise the object of the research will be totally changed and the research itself will be misguided. As for what factors can be temporarily idealized without changing language’s fundamental features, this is a question worth our further study in the future.

Key words: idealization; system of signs; social structure; interaction between language and society

对乔姆斯基语言模式理想化的再思考

摘要：本文从乔姆斯基在语言学研究过程中所采用的理想化模式入手，认为乔姆斯基为了使研究变得简单，便将与语言关系紧密的社会因素摒除在研究范围之外，这是一种不可取的理想模式。接下来本文从两个主要方面阐述了理想化模式不可取的原因：一是语言作为一种符号系统，只有在社会的环境下才能具有完整的意义。二是语言作为一种社会结构，无论是它的产生还是发展过程，都在不断地和社会发生着相互用。故而没有了社会因素，语言作为符号系统就丧失了意义，作为社会结构就丧失了依存的基础。所以只要是研究语言学，我们就不能将社会因素“理想化”。至于什么因素可以暂时不予考虑，这仍有待进一步的研究。

关键词：理想化；符号系统；社会结构；语言与社会的相互作用

1. Introduction

The mid-20th century has brought with it many significant changes and progresses in the study of language. New areas of inquiry have opened to serious investigation, leading to many insights and deeper understanding of the nature of human language. In the sphere of cognition, Chomsky’s theories on linguistics may be the most striking ones. They led far-reaching changes in the study of linguistics, and had great impact in a number of other fields as well.

One fact that can be found in Chomsky’s early linguistic works is that all his theories are set up on the research of so-called “idealization”. One remarkable of his methodology of idealization in the period of 1960s is that all the social factors were excluded out of his study. The reason why he did so lies in his consideration that if social factors were taken into account, then in the study of language there would be too many things to be taken care of. So he borrowed the widely used methodology of idealization from physics, and hoped to simplify the linguistic study. In his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, he presented us an “ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions and interest, and errors (random of characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance” (Chomsky, 1965: 3, 4). His subject’s total separation from the society is the most remarkable feature of his idealization. The ideal person is one without interference from outside environment, without communication with others but one simply speaks to himself. In short, he’s an isolated individual from the society. Many linguists approve of his idealization. Widdowson also described in his Linguistics the way in which the discipline of physics models the physical world in term of wave and particles bears no relationship to the way we experience it. This does not invalidate the model.

Is it true that Chomsky’s idealized models can keep their validity as the physical models do? The author thinks this method of idealization is doubtful. Because language on the one hand is a concrete system of signs, on the other hand is a social institution. Only in the context of a society are these two features significant and integrate, can language bear its forms, forward its development and keep up the interaction with society.

We should never forget “the concrete object of linguistic science is the social product deposited in the brain of each individual, i.e. language” (Saussure, 1960: 23). Accordingly, if linguistic research is conducted regardless social factors, all the fundamental attributes of the subjects will be changed totally. If that were the case then we could be making a paradox that what linguists research were anything but language. Consequently, this kind of methodology of idealization is by no means accessible.

2. Demonstration

Since Chomsky’s idealization method is born out of its counterpart in physics, we could begin with the ideal models in physical research to open the demonstration.

Newton’s Second Law and Perfect Gas Law are two famous formulae in physics. Strictly speaking, many idealized conditions are required in order to validate these two formulae, such as the regardless of resistance and volume of molecules. These idealized models, however, in the practical physical research have never and will never invalidate the formulae themselves. Because the factors as resistance and the volume of molecules, can not prevent natural laws’ taking affect. They are only interfering factors from outside. As to the laws themselves, without these factors, in order to make the result more accurate, all people needed to do is just add some corrections. Furthermore, what the laws focus will become more clear and precise without the interference of these outside factors.

The linguistic research is different from the physical in that the function of social factors cannot be identified as the resistance and the volume of molecules in physics, because all the linguistic laws must be investigated in the context of society. If social factors could be “idealized” in the linguistic research, language would become the sign without significance, the sounds without listeners, the tools of no use. If researchers had conducted with such a prerequisite, we could not name what the subjects were. At least they were not languages. The linguistic research would be astray subsequently.

We could see some fundamental social influences on the nature of language from the following two aspects:

2.1 Language as a concrete system of signs

Saussure presented the concept that language can be treated as a system of signs. He said, “I propose to retain the word sign [signe] to designate the whole and to replace concept and sound-im-age respectively by signified [signifié] and signifier [signifiant]” (1960: 67).

2.1.1 Language as a system.

The reason why we can regard language as a concrete system is that language is systematic bonding of objectivity ad subjectivity. Human beings are born with cognitive aptitude. Different objects are not some simple reflections of images within human mind, but some concepts that require human beings’ mental process. For example, a dog in human mind is not only the appearance of the animal, but also the letters “d,o,g”, the pronunciation/dong/. So it is language that combines the image of an objective dog with

the concept of a subjective dog. And this kind of combination is exclusive and fixed as long as it has been built up within human mind. The so-called origin of language is the process of combination of concept and image as the author has mentioned above. But the process is rather contingent (or as Saussure said it is immotivé). For instance the same plant in Chinese is called/∫u(树), but in English it is /tri:/(tree). It is the contingency that causes the difference.

Then what kind of mysterious power continues and strengthens this difference for thousands of years? How could this power many new language forms as “树叶” in Chinese and “family tree” in English? Conventionalization is the answer to all these questions.

2.1.1 Conventionalization of language

As we have known, any form of science should and must be set up on the base of logic and reason instead of contingency. Subjective self-coined activity can only fashion a combination of concept and image in one single person’s mind. A case in point is those babies naming of some objects as “dido”, “da-da” etc. Adults cannot understand them, because without the acknowledgement of others, the naming of one thing is no more than a vocal sign without meanings and significance. With more and more people’s acknowledgement to the name, or the combination of concept and image, the name becomes more and more steady and lasting. Everyone in the society encounters either part of this combination. And the other part is reflected in his mind spontaneously. This process, namely, is one of conventionalization. Only after this process those initially contingent, insignificant signs become significant and meaningful. In other words, they have got social consensus from conventionalization.

Humboldt once described this process as “language develops socially, and man understands himself only he has tested the intelligibility of his words by trial upon others. For objectivity is heightened if the self-coined word is echoed from a stranger’s mouth” ( 1988: 56). Saussure summed up like this “Contrary to all appearance, language never exists apart from the social nature, for it is a semilogical phenomenon. Its social nature is one of its inner character” ( 1960: 77).

To conclude, only in the context of society, the combinations of image-concept and the acknowledgement to the self-coined combination can be determined as a fixed unity and systematic signs.

2.2 Language as a social institution

Society is a unity of separate individuals. How could these individuals unite as one in action? It is the communicative function of language that human beings have utilized and tired up to establish contact with individuals within their society. Accordingly, language itself merged into the society as a social institution.

2.2.1 Communicative function of language

Searle once made an incisive comparison “The purpose of language to communication is in much the same sense that the heart is to pump blood” (1969: 75).

Without language and communication, there is no society at all, but a group of separate individuals. At the same time, there is another undeniable truth that without society, language and its communicative function can not be realized at all. Society and language interact each other constantly. Saussure once argued “The culture of a nation exerts an influence on its language and the language, on the other hand, is largely responsible for the nations” (1960: 20).

2.2.2 Language evolving with the society

In the process of language’s evolution, the influence of society can be included into two aspects as follows: Macrolinguistic and Microlinguistic influences.

A. Influences from society upon language

a. Macrolinguistic influences involve “a more or less simultaneous effect on large group of people, up to entire society” (Bright, 1997: 23). As we know, some great historic events are always accompanied with changes in the field of language. As a result of Norman Conquest, French entered the upper class of England, and people with aspiration to rise socially might make efforts to master French. Take Liberation of China as another example instead of Mr, Miss, and Ms used before Liberation, all the people in Mainland became “comrades”.

b. While Microlinguistic influences “initiated by a single individual, or by a small group, an subsequently initiated by others who attribute social value to them” (Bright, 1997: 24). One case in point is the political slogans that we Chinese people are very familiar with. “When rulers invent their own the distinction between political slogan and proverbs can easily be blurred: there is a political dimension to the proverbs of Solomon and a proverbial quality to the saying of Chairman Mao” (Jones, 1983: 101). We should say Mao Tze-dong as an individual brought great influence on the language at that time. Also “an advanced state of civilization favors the development of special terminology (judicial language, scientific terminology etc.)”(Saussure, 1960: 21), so that certain terms or jargons are widely used in society.

B. Influences from language upon society

Besides the influence caused by society upon language, language to some extent can react on society accordingly. Humboldt said “language is the formative organ of thoughts”(1988: 54). And language in his opinion is not like a toolbox, is not already given work (like the content of the toolbox), but a creative power—or in his famous words, it is not “ergon”, but “energeia” (Humboldt, 1988: 16). Language, therefore, is not merely designative. It is not a representation but an expression. It is the society that empowers language’s creativity and expression. French in Norman Conquest, for instance, was not only a communicative means, but also an active expression of one’s social status. The magic power of language draws an invisible but existing line between different social classes. In film My Fair Lady, this kind of reform upon caused by language is very obvious.

a. Interaction between language and society

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